| First author, journal, year, country | Participants (number, age range, mean age) | Inclusion and exclusion criteria | Neuro-imaging technique | Neuroimaging results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DCD: Developmental coordination disorder, pDCD=probable, TDC: Typically developing children, ADHD: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, ASD: Autism spectrum disorder, MABC: Movement Assessment Battery for Children, DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging, MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging, DTI: Diffusion tensor imaging, EEG: Electroencephalografi, NIRS: Near-infrared spectroscopy fNIRS: Functional near- infrared spectroscopy, TMS:Transcranial magnetic stimulation, MNS: Mirror neuron system, DD: Developmental dyslexia. MAND = McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development, Dyspraxia/Developmental Coordination Disorder Checklist (ADC-Checklist). | ||||
| Lloyd et al., Magn Reson Med, 2010, UK «Lloyd W, Mon-Williams M, Waiter GD, Williams JH. D...»2 | DCD: 14 Age: 8-13 (10.7±2.7) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16 percentile | Structural MRI |
A negative correlation was found between the cerebellar posterior lobe gray matter volume and the root mean square error score |
| Langevin et al., Dev Med Child Neurol, 2015, Canada «Langevin LM, MacMaster FP, Dewey D. Distinct patte...»3 | DCD: 14 Age: 8-17 (9.9±1.7) DCD + ADHD: 10 Age: 8-17 (9.7±2.3) ADHD: 10 Age: 8-17 (9.9±1.3) TDC: 14 Age: 8-17 (11.2±3) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16 percentile, TDC MABC-2 > 25th percentile ADHD: Being diagnosed as having ADHD according to the DSM-V criteria |
Structural MRI |
Less parietal, temporal and frontal cortical thickness was detected in the DCD + ADHD group compared to the other groups |
| Caeyenberghs et al., Dev Sci, 2016, Australia «Caeyenberghs K, Taymans T, Wilson PH, ym. Neural s...»4 | DCD: 11 ASD: 15 DCD + ASD: 8 TDC: 19 Age: 8-12 years |
DCD: Being diagnosed as having DCD according to the DSM-IV criteria IQ >75 | Structural MRI |
There was a difference between the DCD, ASD and DCD + ASD groups and TDC in terms
of the clustering coefficient of brain gray matter volume, which was an indicator
of brain connections. An increase in clustering coefficient was detected in the right inferior frontal gyrus in the ASD group, in the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex in the DCD group, and in the left temporal cortex and right medial orbitofrontal cortex in the DCD + ASD group It has been found that increase in clustering coefficient indicates dysfunction in neural mechanisms and is associated with poor performance in motor tasks. |
| Reynolds et al., Int J Dev Neurosci, 2017, Australia «Reynolds JE, Licari MK, Reid SL, et al. Reduced re...»5 | DCD: 22 Age: 8-12 (9.9±1.1) TDC: 22 Age: 8-12 (9.7±1.2) |
DCD: MABC-2, < 16 percentile, TDC: MABC-2, > 25th percentile Not having a diagnosis of ADH |
Structural MRI |
It was determined that the gray matter volume in the frontal cortex of children with DCD was lower than the TDC children |
| Grohs et al., Brain Imaging and Behavior,2021, Canada «Grohs MN, Lebel C, Carlson HL, ym. Subcortical bra...»6 | Cohort I: Recruited 5/12-8/12 DCD: 19 Age: 8 -12 (9.7 ±1.3); TDC: 19 Age 8-12 (10.4 ± 1.3) Cohort II: Recruited 6/18-10/19 DCD: 18 Age 8-13 (10.2 ± 1.3) TDC 29 (10.1 ± 1.7) |
DCD: MABC-2, < 16 percentile, TDC: MABC-2, > 25th percentile |
Structural MRI |
Smaller brain volumes subcortical structure, within both the left and right pallidum among a sample of children with DCD than TDC group. |
| Lê, M. et al., Dev. Sci., 2021, France «Lê M, Blais M, Jucla M, ym. Procedural learning an...»7 | DCD: 11 (9.8 ± 1.1); TDC 19 (10.1 ± 1.39) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile TDC: MABC2 ≥ 25th percentile ADHD, specific language impairment, and developmental dyslexia were excluded in both groups |
Structural MRI |
Brain-behavior correlations on three ROIs (sensorimotor, frontal and parietal regions), especially on the sensorimotor regions, suggest that the cortical thickness of these regions could predict the level of audio-verbal synchronization during learning of non-regular sequences |
| Koch et al., Exp Brain Res, 2018, Portugal «Koch JKL, Miguel H, Smiley-Oyen AL. Prefrontal act...»8 | DCD: 10 Age: 8-12 years (9.9±1.2) TDC: 10 Age: 8-12 years (10.01±1.1) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile TDC: MABC2 ≥ 25th percentile Those who did not have developmental, neurological or learning problems |
NIRS | Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation was found to be higher in children with DCD compared to TDC |
| Caçola et al., Int J Dev Neurosci, 2018, USA «Caçola P, Getchell N, Srinivasan D, ym. Cortical a...»9 | DCD: 10 Age: 8-12 years (8.46±0.97) TDC: 10 Age: 8-12 years (8.22±0.86) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile TDC: MABC2 ≥ 25th percentile Those who did not have developmental, neurological or learning problems |
fNIRS | According to fNIRS findings, it was determined that there was more activation in the
primary motor cortex and premotor cortex areas in the TDC group compared to the DCD
group, both contralaterally and ipsilatererally In addition, it was observed that the activated areas in the DCD group were mostly on the ipsilateral side |
| Querne et al., Brain Res, 2008, France «Querne L, Berquin P, Vernier-Hauvette MP, ym. Dysf...»10 | DCD: 9 Age: 8.0-12.9 (9.9±1.8) TDC: 10 Age: 8.2-11.6 (10.0±1.1) |
DCD: Having a diagnosis of DCD according to DSM-IV criteria Not having neurological and psychiatric disorders (e.g. cerebral lesion, ADHD) IQ >80 |
fMRI | In children with DCD compared to TDC: Increased activation in the left hemisphere in the middle frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and inferior parietal cortex; decreased activation in the striatum and parietal cortex in the right hemisphere |
| Kashiwagi et al., Neuroreport, 2009, Japan «Kashiwagi M, Iwaki S, Narumi Y, ym. Parietal dysfu...»11 | DCD: 12 Age: 9-12 (11.4±1.6) TDC: 12 Age: 9-12 (11.2±1.3) |
DCD: Having a diagnosis of DCD according to DSM-IV criteria MABC 90 | fMRI | Less activation was found in the left parietal cortex and left postcentral gyrus in the group with DCD compared to the TDC group. Similar activation rates were observed in both groups in the cerebellum and basal ganglia areas |
| Zwicker et al., Pediatrics, 2010, Canada «Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, ym. Brain activ...»12 | DCD: 7 Age: 8-12 (10.8±1.5) TDC: 7 Age: 8-12 (10.9±1.5) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 16th percentile TDC: MABC-2 > 25th percentile IQ >80 Not having a diagnosis of ADHD |
fMRI | Although both groups were given the same motor tasks, it was observed that different areas were activated in both groups. More cortical activation was detected in the left parietal lobe, right middle frontal gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus, right cerebellar lobe areas in DCD group compared to the TDC group, while in the TDC group, more cortical activation was detected in the left superior and inferior frontal gyrus than in the DCD group |
| Zwicker et al., Int J Dev Neurosci, 2011, Canada «Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, ym. Brain activ...»13 | DCD: 7 Age: 8-12 (10.8±1.5) TDC: 7 Age: 8-12 (10.9±1.5) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 16th percentile TDC: MABC-2 > 25th percentile IQ >80 Not having a diagnosis of ADHD |
fMRI | The DCD group showed less cortical activation in the cerebellar, parietal and frontal areas than the TDC group |
| Debrabant et al., Res Dev Disabil, 2013, Belgium «Debrabant J, Gheysen F, Caeyenberghs K, ym. Neural...»14 | DCD: 17 Age: 7-10 (9.4±0.6) TDC: 17 Age: 7-10 (9.2±0.9) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile TDC: MABC-2 > 16th percentile IQ > 85 Not having a diagnosis of ADHD |
fMRI | During motor tasks, less cortical activation was found in the cerebellar areas in the DCD group compared to the TDC group |
| McLeod et al., Neuroimage Clin, 2014, Canada «McLeod KR, Langevin LM, Goodyear BG, ym. Functiona...»15 | DCD: 7 Age: 8-17 (13.0±2.5) ADHD: 21 Age: 8-17 (12.5±2.9) DCD + ADHD: 18 Age: 8-17
(11.5±3.0) TDC: 23 Age: 8-17 (11.3±2.8) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16th percentile, IQ > 80 ADHD: Being diagnosed as having ADHD according to the DSM-V criteria | Resting-state fMRI | Atypical neural connections were found in the sensory-motor cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglion areas in the DCD group and DCD + ADHD group compared to the TDC group |
| Licari et al., Exp Brain Res, 2015, Australia «Licari MK, Billington J, Reid SL, ym. Cortical fun...»16 | DCD: 13 Age: 8-10 (9.6±0.8) TDC: 13 Age: 8-10 (9.3±0.6) |
DCD: MABC-2 15th percentile Not having a diagnosis of ADHD |
fMRI | Less cortical activation was detected in the right postcentral gyrus and left superior and inferior frontal gyri, and deficits were observed in the mirror neuron system in the DCD group |
| Biotteau et al., Eur Journal of Paediatr Neurol, 2017, France «Biotteau M, Péran P, Vayssière N, ym. Neural chang...»17 | DCD: 16 Age: 8-12 (9.6±1.7) DCD + DD: 16 Age: 8-12 (9.9±1.1) TDC: 16 Age: 8-12 (10.3±1.3) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile DD: MABC-2 > 16th percentile IQ >85 Not having a diagnosis of ADHD |
fMRI | Increased activation was found in the premotor cortex in the DCD and DD groups |
| McLeod et al., Neuroimage Clin, 2016, Canada «McLeod KR, Langevin LM, Dewey D, ym. Atypical with...»18 | DCD: 6 Age: 8-16 (13±2.8) DCD + ADHD: 14 Age: 8-16 (11.3±3.8) ADHD: 19 Age: 8-16 (12.4±3.1) TDC: 21 Age: 8-16 (11±2.8) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16th percentile. ADHD: Being diagnosed as having ADHD according to the DSM-V criteria |
Resting-state fMRI | In the DCD+ADHD group, the bilateral middle frontal gyrus and inferior lateral occipital cortex had stronger functional connections with the left sensory-motor cortex, whereas in the DCD and ADHD groups these regions were equally connected with the left and right sensory-motor cortex. |
| Kashuk et al, 2017Behav Brain Res «Kashuk SR, Williams J, Thorpe G, ym. Diminished mo...»19 | pDCD: 12 Age 18-40 (mean age 24.5) TD: 11 Age 18-40 (mean age 26.7) |
pDCD: MAND ≤ 85 (< 16th percentile ) ADC Checklist TD: MAND < 85 |
fMRI | Greater activation in controls compared to the pDCD group in the occipito-parietal
and parieto-frontal networks including the middle frontal gyrus bilaterally, the left
superior parietal lobe as well as in the cerebellum (lobule VI). The pattern of reduced activation in adults with pDCD suggest atypical activation in frontal, parietal and cerebellar areas, and supports the theory that this type of impairment may be associated with disruption of parieto-frontal and parieto-cerebellar networks. |
| Thornton et al., Hum Mov Sci, 2018, Canada «Thornton S, Bray S, Langevin LM, ym. Functional br...»20 | DCD: 9 Age: 8-12 (10.55±1.67) DCD + ADHD: 18 Age: 8-12 (10.94±2.62) ADHD: 20 Age: 8-16 (13.5±2.74) TDC: 20 Age: 8-12 (10.2±2.8) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16 percentile, ADHD: Being diagnosed as having ADHD according to the DSM-V criteria |
fMRI | Less activation was detected in the primary sensory and motor cortex areas of the DCD, DCD + ADHD, and ADHD groups compared to the TDC group |
| Reynolds et al., Int J Dev Neurosci, 2015, Australia «Reynolds JE, Licari MK, Billington J, ym. Mirror n...»21 | DCD: 10 Age: 8-12 (10.18±1.3) TDC: 9 Age: 8-12 (10.4±1.17) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16th percentile TDC > 25th percentile |
fMRI | It was determined that there were deficits in the mirror neuron system in the DCD group, and therefore it was suggested that children with DCD had problems in motor imagery |
| Rinat et al., NeuroImage:Clinical, 2020, Canada «Rinat et al., NeuroImage:Clinical, 2020, Canada...»22 | DCD: 35 Age: 8-12, with and without co-occuring ADHD) TDC: 23 Age: 8-12 |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16th percentile TDC > 25th percentile Exclusion criteria: born pre-term < 37 weeks diagnosed with ASD (or ADHD) or intellectual disability |
Resting MRI | The results indicate a disruption in functional connectivity in DCD in two main regions connected to the sensorimotor network: one is located at the posterior cingulate cortex, extending to the precuneus, and the other is located in pMTG. These results suggest that the neural impairment seen in DCD is predominantly in the sensorimotor network. |
| Zwicker et al., Pediatr Neurol, 2012, Canada «Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, ym. Development...»23 | DCD: 7 Age: 8-12 (10.2±1.6) TDC: 9 Age: 8-12 (10.4±1.7) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16 percentile Kaufman Brief Intelligence test > 80 Conner Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnostic scale < 70 |
DTI | The average mean diffusivity amount in the corticospinal tract was found to be lower
in children with DCD than in TDC. A positive correlation was found between axial diffusivity of the corticospinal tract and posterior thalamic radiation and MABC-2 scores |
| Langevin et al., J Pediatr, 2014, Canada «Langevin LM, Macmaster FP, Crawford S, ym. Common ...»24 | DCD: 9 Age: 8-12 (11.5±3.18) ADHD: 23 Age: 8-12 (12.22±2.68) DCD + ADHD: 26 Age: 8-12 (11.78±2.99) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16 percentile, ADHD: Conners' Parent Rating scale >95th percentile |
DTI | Decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) in the parietal lobe in children with DCD. Decreased
FA was found in the frontal lobe in children with ADHD. Decreased FA was found in both parietal and frontal lobes in children with DCD + ADHD |
| Williams et al., Neuroreport, 2017, Australia «Williams J, Kashuk SR, Wilson PH, ym. White matter...»25 | DCD: 7 Age: 18-40 (24.5±7.6) Control group: 9 Age: 18-40 (26.7±5.5) |
DCD: McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development ≤ 85 . Not having a diagnosis of autism, Asperger's sdr or ADHD Control group: McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development > 85. Not having a diagnosis of autism, Asperger's syndrome or ADHD |
DTI | A significant decrease was detected in the fractional anisotropy of white matter in the corticospinal tract and superior longitudinal fasciculus in the DCD group, and there was a significant decrease in the mean diffusivity of the white matter in the internal capsule and inferior longitudinal fasciculus in the DCD group compared to the control group. |
| Debrabant et al., J Pediatr, 2016, Belgium «Debrabant J, Vingerhoets G, Van Waelvelde H, ym. B...»26 | DCD: 21 Age: 8-10 years (9.2±1.1) TDC: 20 Age: 8-10 years (9.4±1.7) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile | DTI | Fractional anisotropy in the visual-motor tracts was lower in the DCD group. |
| Hyde et al., Neuroimage Clin, 2019, Australia «Hyde C, Fuelscher I, Enticott PG, ym. White matter...»27 | DCD: 7 Age: 18-46 years (23.29±4.31) Control group: 12 Age: 18-46 years (26.16±4.34) |
DCD: Being diagnosed as having DCD according to the DSM-V criteria | DTI | Axon diameters and numbers in the left Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus (SLF) were
lower in the DCD group than the control group, and a trend for a decrease in the volume
of the right SLF was detected in the DCD group. A positive correlation was found between
this decrease and deficiencies in motor skills. Motor impairment characteristic of DCD may be subserved by white matter abnormalities in sensorimotor tracts, specifically the left and right SLF. |
| Hyde et al.Res Dev Diasabil, 2018, Australia «Hyde et al.Res Dev Diasabil, 2018, Australia...»28 | DCD: 8 Age 20-33 years, mean age 24.29; SD = 4.49 Control group: 21 Age 18-36 years, mean age= 25.00; SD = 4.82 |
DCD: according to the DSM-V criteria for adults BOT-2 s at or below the 15th percentile ADC-Checklist Control group: McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development > 85. |
TMS | The DCD group used motor imagery less efficiently than controls that was evidenced by poorer performance on the hand laterality task. Unlike controls, individuals with DCD who used motor imagery did not show evidence of corticospinal excitability modulation while performing the hand lateralization task. |
| Lust et al., Child Care Health Dev, 2006, Holland «Lust JM, Geuze RH, Wijers AA, ym. An EEG study of ...»29 | DCD: 10 Age: 8-12 years (10.4±1.1) TDC: 7 Age: 8-12 years (9.6±1.7) Adult group: 14 Age: 19-29 years (22.4±4.7) |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16percentile | EEG | In the test estimating the right and left hand pictures rotated in 45 degrees in right and left directions; while accurate prediction, response times and EEG activations were found similar in the DCD and TDC groups, better results were obtained in the adult group and it was found that this test showed age-related changes |
| DeCastalneu et al., Hum Mov Sci, 2008, France «de Castelnau P, Albaret JM, Chaix Y, ym. A study o...»30 | DCD: 24 (3 age groups of 8-9, 10-11 and 12-13 years) TDC: 24 (3 age groups of 8-9, 10-11 and 12-13 years) |
DCD: Being diagnosed as having DCD according to the DSM-V criteria MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile IQ > 80 | EEG | According to the EEG findings, it was found that intrahemispheric connections between
the frontal central areas increased more in only the 8-9 age group with DCD compared
to the other groups According to these findings, it appeared that younger children with DCD needed a high level of pre-programming to compensate for difficulties in perceptual motor and executive functions of movement related to coordination disorders No significant difference was found between the groups according to EEG findings for interhemispheric connections |
| Tsai et al., Dev Med Child Neurol, 2012, Taiwan «Tsai CL, Chang YK, Hung TM, ym. The neurophysiolog...»31 | DCD: 24 Age: 8-16 years (11.4±2.1) TDC: 30 Age: 8-16 years (11.8±2.7) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile Not being diagnosed as having autism or ADHD |
EEG | It was found that children with DCD had a prolonged reaction time and EEG activation was lower than TDC, and it was observed that children with DCD made less effort in the evaluation and response process and used less neural resources to compensate for mistakes. |
| Lust et al,Frontiers in Human Sciense, 2019, Australia «Lust JM, van Schie HT, Wilson PH, ym. Activation o...»32 | DCD:15 TDC: 15 |
DCD: MABC-2 < 16th percentile | EEG (event-related desynchronization (ERD) of mu rhythms and fronto-parietal coherence) |
Topographic representation of the maximal difference in averaged mu power over sensorimotor
regions between the imitation task and the detection task for controls. Clear MNS dysfunction in DCD in behaviour, mu power and mu coherence |
| Pangelinan et al., J Neurophysiol, 2013, France «Pangelinan MM, Hatfield BD, Clark JE. Differences ...»33 | DCD: 14 Age: 6-12 years (10.2±2.1) TDC: 20 Age: 6-12 years (9.8±2.2) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile The patients whose dominant hand was found to be the right hand according to the Fagard and Corroyer 2003 Handedness test TDC: MABC2 ≥ 25th percentile Those who did not have developmental, neurological and learning problems and were right-handed |
EEG | Younger children (6-8 years) with DCD had less cortical activation areas and lower
EEG frequency amplitudes. Compensatory cortical activation areas were found to be
more and EEG frequency amplitudes higher in older patients with DCD (10-12 years).
It has been determined that this behavioral change is to show better motor performance |
| Fong et al., Medicine (Baltimore), 2016, China «Fong SSM, Chung JWY, Cheng YTY, ym. Attention duri...»34 | DCD: 86 Age: 6-10 years (7.9±1.7) T TDC: 99 Age: 6-10 years (7.4±1.6) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency ≤ 42 |
EEG | EEG values of children with DCD were found to be lower than the TDC group. |
| Blais et al., Dev Sci, 2018, France «Blais M, Amarantini D, Albaret JM, Chaix Y, Tallet...»35 | DCD: 10 Age: 12-16 years (13.49±1.76) TDC: 10 Age: 12-16 years (13.47±1.39) |
DCD: MABC-2 ≤ 5th percentile Not having a diagnosis of ADHD according to the DSM-5 criteria |
EEG | According to the EEG findings, the intrahemispheric connections of both groups were found to be similar, while the number of interhemispheric connections of the DCD group was found to be lower than the TDC group |